Radiotherapy & Oncology
Volume 88, Issue 3 , Pages 289-309 , September 2008

A literature review of electronic portal imaging for radiotherapy dosimetry

  • Wouter van Elmpt

      Affiliations

    • Department of Radiation Oncology (MAASTRO), GROW, University Hospital Maastricht, The Netherlands
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Wouter van Elmpt, Department of Radiation Oncology (MAASTRO), GROW, University Hospital Maastricht, Dr. Tanslaan 12, NL-6229 ET Maastricht, The Netherlands.
    • Both authors contributed equally to this work.
  • ,
  • Leah McDermott

      Affiliations

    • Department of Radiation Oncology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute-Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
    • Both authors contributed equally to this work.
  • ,
  • Sebastiaan Nijsten

      Affiliations

    • Department of Radiation Oncology (MAASTRO), GROW, University Hospital Maastricht, The Netherlands
  • ,
  • Markus Wendling

      Affiliations

    • Department of Radiation Oncology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute-Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
  • ,
  • Philippe Lambin

      Affiliations

    • Department of Radiation Oncology (MAASTRO), GROW, University Hospital Maastricht, The Netherlands
  • ,
  • Ben Mijnheer

      Affiliations

    • Department of Radiation Oncology (MAASTRO), GROW, University Hospital Maastricht, The Netherlands
    • Department of Radiation Oncology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute-Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Received 9 April 2008 ,Revised 9 July 2008 ,Accepted 12 July 2008.

References 

  1. Herman MG. Clinical use of electronic portal imaging. Semin Radiat Oncol. 2005;15:157–167
  2. Herman MG, Balter JM, Jaffray DA, et al. Clinical use of electronic portal imaging: report of AAPM Radiation Therapy Committee Task Group 58. Med Phys. 2001;28:712–737
  3. Herman MG, Kruse JJ, Hagness CR. Guide to clinical use of electronic portal imaging. J Appl Clin Med Phys. 2000;1:38–57
  4. Langmack KA. Portal imaging. Br J Radiol. 2001;74:789–804
  5. Antonuk LE. Electronic portal imaging devices: a review and historical perspective of contemporary technologies and research. Phys Med Biol. 2002;47:R31–65
  6. De Wagter C. QA-QC of IMRT: European perspective. In:  Bortfeld T,  Schmidt-Ullrich R,  De Neve W,  Wazer DE editor. Image-guided IMRT. Berlin-Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 2006;
  7. Moran JM. QA-QC of IMRT: American perspective. In:  Bortfeld T,  Schmidt-Ullrich R,  De Neve W,  Wazer DE editor. Image-guided IMRT. Berlin-Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 2006;
  8. Wiezorek T, Banz N, Schwedas M, et al. Dosimetric quality assurance for intensity-modulated radiotherapy feasibility study for a filmless approach. Strahlenther Onkol. 2005;181:468–474
  9. Amerio S, Boriano A, Bourhaleb F, et al. Dosimetric characterization of a large area pixel-segmented ionization chamber. Med Phys. 2004;31:414–420
  10. Spezi E, Angelini AL, Romani F, Ferri A. Characterization of a 2D ion chamber array for the verification of radiotherapy treatments. Phys Med Biol. 2005;50:3361–3373
  11. Letourneau D, Gulam M, Yan D, Oldham M, Wong JW. Evaluation of a 2D diode array for IMRT quality assurance. Radiother Oncol. 2004;70:199–206
  12. Jursinic PA, Nelms BE. A 2-D diode array and analysis software for verification of intensity modulated radiation therapy delivery. Med Phys. 2003;30:870–879
  13. Monti AF, Frigerio G. Dosimetric verification of 6 and 18MV intensity modulated photon beams using a dedicated fluoroscopic electronic portal imaging device (EPID). Radiother Oncol. 2006;81:88–96
  14. Hesse BM, Spies L, Groh BA. Tomotherapeutic portal imaging for radiation treatment verification. Phys Med Biol. 1998;43:3607–3616
  15. Cremers F, Frenzel T, Kausch C, Albers D, Schonborn T, Schmidt R. Performance of electronic portal imaging devices (EPIDs) used in radiotherapy: image quality and dose measurements. Med Phys. 2004;31:985–996
  16. Boyer AL, Antonuk L, Fenster A, et al. A review of electronic portal imaging devices (EPIDs). Med Phys. 1992;19:1–16
  17. Kirby MC, Glendinning AG. Developments in electronic portal imaging systems. Br J Radiol. 2006;79 Spec No. 1:S50–S65
  18. van Herk M. Physical aspects of a liquid-filled ionization chamber with pulsed polarizing voltage. Med Phys. 1991;18:692–702
  19. Meertens H, van Herk M, Bijhold J, Bartelink H. First clinical experience with a newly developed electronic portal imaging device. Int J Rad Oncol Biol Phys. 1990;18:1173–1181
  20. Meertens H, van Herk M, Weeda J. A liquid ionisation detector for digital radiography of therapeutic megavoltage photon beams. Phys Med Biol. 1985;30:313–321
  21. van Herk M, Meertens H. A matrix ionisation chamber imaging device for on-line patient setup verification during radiotherapy. Radiother Oncol. 1988;11:369–378
  22. Essers M, Boellaard R, van Herk M, Lanson H, Mijnheer B. Transmission dosimetry with a liquid-filled electronic portal imaging device. Int J Rad Oncol Biol Phys. 1996;34:931–941
  23. Yin FF, Schell MC, Rubin P. Input/output characteristics of a matrix ion-chamber electronic portal imaging device. Med Phys. 1994;21:1447–1454
  24. Essers M, Hoogervorst BR, van Herk M, Lanson H, Mijnheer BJ. Dosimetric characteristics of a liquid-filled electronic portal imaging device. Int J Rad Oncol Biol Physics. 1995;33:1265–1272
  25. Zhu Y, Jiang XQ, Van Dyk J. Portal dosimetry using a liquid ion chamber matrix: dose response studies. Med Phys. 1995;22:1101–1106
  26. Boellaard R, van Herk M, Mijnheer BJ. The dose response relationship of a liquid-filled electronic portal imaging device. Med Phys. 1996;23:1601–1611
  27. Keller H, Fix M, Ruegsegger P. Calibration of a portal imaging device for high-precision dosimetry: a Monte Carlo study. Med Phys. 1998;25:1891–1902
  28. Parsaei H, el-Khatib E, Rajapakshe R. The use of an electronic portal imaging system to measure portal dose and portal dose profiles. Med Phys. 1998;25:1903–1909
  29. Chang J, Mageras GS, Ling CC, Lutz W. An iterative EPID calibration procedure for dosimetric verification that considers the EPID scattering factor. Med Phys. 2001;28:2247–2257
  30. Van Esch A, Vanstraelen B, Verstraete J, Kutcher G, Huyskens D. Pre-treatment dosimetric verification by means of a liquid-filled electronic portal imaging device during dynamic delivery of intensity modulated treatment fields. Radiother Oncol. 2001;60:181–190
  31. Chang J, Mageras GS, Ling CC. Evaluation of rapid dose map acquisition of a scanning liquid-filled ionization chamber electronic portal imaging device. Int J Rad Oncol Biol Phys. 2003;55:1432–1445
  32. Chin PW, Lewis DG, Spezi E. Correction for dose–response variations in a scanning liquid ion chamber EPID as a function of linac gantry angle. Phys Med Biol. 2004;49:N93–103
  33. Louwe RJ, Tielenburg R, van Ingen KM, Mijnheer BJ, van Herk MB. The stability of liquid-filled matrix ionization chamber electronic portal imaging devices for dosimetry purposes. Med Phys. 2004;31:819–827
  34. Reich P, Bezak E, Mohammadi M, Fog L. The prediction of transmitted dose distributions using a 3D treatment planning system. Australas Phys Eng Sci Med. 2006;29:18–29
  35. Mohammadi M, Bezak E. Two-dimensional transmitted dose measurements using a scanning liquid ionization chamber EPID. Phys Med Biol. 2006;51:2971–2985
  36. Tateoka K, Ouchi A, Waka M, et al. Dosimetric properties of the liquid ionization chamber electronic portal imaging device (EPID). Igaku Butsuri. 2006;26:28–38
  37. Morton EJ, Swindell W, Lewis DG, Evans PM. A linear array, scintillation crystal-photodiode detector for megavoltage imaging. Med Phys. 1991;18:681–691
  38. Symonds-Tayler JR, Partridge M, Evans PM. An electronic portal imaging device for transit dosimetry. Phys Med Biol. 1997;42:2273–2283
  39. Hansen VN, Evans PM, Swindell W. The application of transit dosimetry to precision radiotherapy. Med Phys. 1996;23:713–721
  40. Mosleh-Shirazi MA, Evans PM, Swindell W, Symonds-Tayler JR, Webb S, Partridge M. Rapid portal imaging with a high-efficiency, large field-of-view detector. Med Phys. 1998;25:2333–2346
  41. Althof VG, de Boer JC, Huizenga H, Stroom JC, Visser AG, Swanenburg BN. Physical characteristics of a commercial electronic portal imaging device. Med Phys. 1996;23:1845–1855
  42. Heijmen BJ, Pasma KL, Kroonwijk M, et al. Portal dose measurement in radiotherapy using an electronic portal imaging device (EPID). Phys Med Biol. 1995;40:1943–1955
  43. Pasma KL, Kroonwijk M, de Boer JC, Visser AG, Heijmen BJ. Accurate portal dose measurement with a fluoroscopic electronic portal imaging device (EPID) for open and wedged beams and dynamic multileaf collimation. Phys Med Biol. 1998;43:2047–2060
  44. Nijsten SM, Minken AW, Lambin P, Bruinvis IA. Verification of treatment parameter transfer by means of electronic portal dosimetry. Med Phys. 2004;31:341–347
  45. Glendinning AG, Bonnett DE. Dosimetric properties of the Theraview fluoroscopic electronic portal imaging device. Br J Radiol. 2000;73:517–530
  46. Glendinning AG, Hunt SG, Bonnett DE. Measurement of the response of Gd2O2S:Tb phosphor to 6MV X-rays. Phys Med Biol. 2001;46:517–530
  47. Franken EM, de Boer JC, Barnhoorn JC, Heijmen BJ. Characteristics relevant to portal dosimetry of a cooled CCD camera-based EPID. Med Phys. 2004;31:2549–2551
  48. Franken EM, de Boer JC, Heijmen BJ. A novel approach to accurate portal dosimetry using CCD-camera based EPIDs. Med Phys. 2006;33:888–903
  49. de Boer JC, Heijmen BJ, Pasma KL, Visser AG. Characterization of a high-elbow, fluoroscopic electronic portal imaging device for portal dosimetry. Phys Med Biol. 2000;45:197–216
  50. Partridge M, Evans PM, Symonds-Tayler JR. Optical scattering in camera-based electronic portal imaging. Phys Med Biol. 1999;44:2381–2396
  51. Partridge M, Symonds-Tayler JR, Evans PM. IMRT verification with a camera-based electronic portal imaging system. Phys Med Biol. 2000;45:N183–N196
  52. Dirkx ML, Heijmen BJ. Testing of the stability of intensity modulated beams generated with dynamic multileaf collimation, applied to the MM50 racetrack microtron. Med Phys. 2000;27:2701–2707
  53. Dirkx ML, Kroonwijk M, de Boer JC, Heijmen BJ. Daily dosimetric quality control of the MM50 racetrack microtron using an electronic portal imaging device. Radiother Oncol. 1995;37:55–60
  54. Antonuk LE, El-Mohri Y, Huang W, et al. Initial performance evaluation of an indirect-detection, active matrix flat-panel imager (AMFPI) prototype for megavoltage imaging. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1998;42:437–454
  55. Antonuk LE, Yorkston J, Huang W, et al. A real-time, flat-panel, amorphous silicon, digital X-ray imager. Radiographics. 1995;15:993–1000
  56. McDermott LN, Louwe RJ, Sonke JJ, van Herk MB, Mijnheer BJ. Dose–response and ghosting effects of an amorphous silicon electronic portal imaging device. Med Phys. 2004;31:285–295
  57. Winkler P, Georg D. An intercomparison of 11 amorphous silicon EPIDs of the same type: implications for portal dosimetry. Phys Med Biol. 2006;51:4189–4200
  58. Parent L, Seco J, Evans PM, Fielding A, Dance DR. Monte Carlo modelling of a-Si EPID response: the effect of spectral variations with field size and position. Med Phys. 2006;33:4527–4540
  59. Winkler P, Hefner A, Georg D. Dose–response characteristics of an amorphous silicon EPID. Med Phys. 2005;32:3095–3105
  60. Parent L, Fielding AL, Dance DR, Seco J, Evans PM. Amorphous silicon EPID calibration for dosimetric applications: comparison of a method based on Monte Carlo prediction of response with existing techniques. Phys Med Biol. 2007;52:3351–3368
  61. Chen J, Chuang CF, Morin O, Aubin M, Pouliot J. Calibration of an amorphous-silicon flat panel portal imager for exit-beam dosimetry. Med Phys. 2006;33:584–594
  62. Nijsten SM, van Elmpt WJ, Jacobs M, et al. A global calibration model for a-Si EPIDs used for transit dosimetry. Med Phys. 2007;34:3872–3884
  63. Greer PB. Correction of pixel sensitivity variation and off-axis response for amorphous silicon EPID dosimetry. Med Phys. 2005;32:3558–3568
  64. Van Esch A, Depuydt T, Huyskens DP. The use of an aSi-based EPID for routine absolute dosimetric pre-treatment verification of dynamic IMRT fields. Radiother Oncol. 2004;71:223–234
  65. Greer PB, Popescu CC. Dosimetric properties of an amorphous silicon electronic portal imaging device for verification of dynamic intensity modulated radiation therapy. Med Phys. 2003;30:1618–1627
  66. Kirkby C, Sloboda R. Consequences of the spectral response of an a-Si EPID and implications for dosimetric calibration. Med Phys. 2005;32:2649–2658
  67. McCurdy BM, Luchka K, Pistorius S. Dosimetric investigation and portal dose image prediction using an amorphous silicon electronic portal imaging device. Med Phys. 2001;28:911–924
  68. Siebers JV, Kim JO, Ko L, Keall PJ, Mohan R. Monte Carlo computation of dosimetric amorphous silicon electronic portal images. Med Phys. 2004;31:2135–2146
  69. Grein EE, Lee R, Luchka K. An investigation of a new amorphous silicon electronic portal imaging device for transit dosimetry. Med Phys. 2002;29:2262–2268
  70. Kirkby C, Sloboda R. Comprehensive Monte Carlo calculation of the point spread function for a commercial a-Si EPID. Med Phys. 2005;32:1115–1127
  71. Louwe RJ, McDermott LN, Sonke JJ, et al. The long-term stability of amorphous silicon flat panel imaging devices for dosimetry purposes. Med Phys. 2004;31:2989–2995
  72. El-Mohri Y, Antonuk LE, Yorkston J, et al. Relative dosimetry using active matrix flat-panel imager (AMFPI) technology. Med Phys. 1999;26:1530–1541
  73. Partridge M, Hesse B-M, Müller L. A performance comparison of direct- and indirect-detection flat-panel imagers. Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res A. 2002;484:351–363
  74. Schach von Wittenau AE, Logan CM, Aufderheide MB, Slone DM. Blurring artifacts in megavoltage radiography with a flat-panel imaging system: comparison of Monte Carlo simulations with measurements. Med Phys. 2002;29:2559–2570
  75. Greer PB. Off-axis dose response characteristics of an amorphous silicon electronic portal imaging device. Med Phys. 2007;34:3815–3824
  76. Wendling M, Louwe RJ, McDermott LN, Sonke JJ, van Herk M, Mijnheer BJ. Accurate two-dimensional IMRT verification using a back-projection EPID dosimetry method. Med Phys. 2006;33:259–273
  77. Talamonti C, Casati M, Bucciolini M. Pretreatment verification of IMRT absolute dose distributions using a commercial a-Si EPID. Med Phys. 2006;33:4367–4378
  78. McDermott LN, Nijsten SM, Sonke JJ, Partridge M, van Herk M, Mijnheer BJ. Comparison of ghosting effects for three commercial a-Si EPIDs. Med Phys. 2006;33:2448–2451
  79. Siewerdsen JH, Jaffray DA. A ghost story: spatio-temporal response characteristics of an indirect-detection flat-panel imager. Med Phys. 1999;26:1624–1641
  80. Budgell GJ, Zhang Q, Trouncer RJ, Mackay RI. Improving IMRT quality control efficiency using an amorphous silicon electronic portal imager. Med Phys. 2005;32:3267–3278
  81. Boellaard R, van Herk M, Mijnheer BJ. A convolution model to convert transmission dose images to exit dose distributions. Med Phys. 1997;24:189–199
  82. Chang J, Mageras GS, Chui CS, Ling CC, Lutz W. Relative profile and dose verification of intensity-modulated radiation therapy. Int J Rad Oncol Biol Phys. 2000;47:231–240
  83. Chin PW, Spezi E, Lewis DG. Monte Carlo simulation of portal dosimetry on a rectilinear voxel geometry: a variable gantry angle solution. Phys Med Biol. 2003;48:N231–238
  84. Baker SJ, Budgell GJ, MacKay RI. Use of an amorphous silicon electronic portal imaging device for multileaf collimator quality control and calibration. Phys Med Biol. 2005;50:1377–1392
  85. Curtin-Savard A, Podgorsak EB. An electronic portal imaging device as a physics tool. Med Dosim. 1997;22:101–105
  86. Vieira SC, Bolt RA, Dirkx ML, Visser AG, Heijmen BJ. Fast, daily linac verification for segmented IMRT using electronic portal imaging. Radiother Oncol. 2006;80:86–92
  87. Budgell GJ, Zhang R, Mackay RI. Daily monitoring of linear accelerator beam parameters using an amorphous silicon EPID. Phys Med Biol. 2007;52:1721–1733
  88. Chang J, Obcemea CH, Sillanpaa J, Mechalakos J, Burman C. Use of EPID for leaf position accuracy QA of dynamic multi-leaf collimator (DMLC) treatment. Med Phys. 2004;31:2091–2096
  89. Liu G, van Doorn T, Bezak E. Assessment of flatness and symmetry of megavoltage X-ray beam with an electronic portal imaging device (EPID). Australas Phys Eng Sci Med. 2002;25:58–66
  90. Metcalfe P, Tangboonduangjit P, White P. Intensity-modulated radiation therapy: overlapping co-axial modulated fields. Phys Med Biol. 2004;49:3629–3637
  91. Williams MJ, Metcalfe P. Verification of a rounded leaf-end MLC model used in a radiotherapy treatment planning system. Phys Med Biol. 2006;51:N65–78
  92. Ploeger LS, Smitsmans MH, Gilhuijs KG, van Herk M. Accurate measurement of the dynamic response of a scanning electronic portal imaging device. Med Phys. 2001;28:310–316
  93. Prisciandaro JI, Herman MG, Kruse JJ. Utilizing an electronic portal imaging device to monitor light and radiation field congruence. J Appl Clin Med Phys. 2003;4:315–320
  94. Xing L, Li JG. Computer verification of fluence map for intensity modulated radiation therapy. Med Phys. 2000;27:2084–2092
  95. Yang Y, Xing L. Quantitative measurement of MLC leaf displacements using an electronic portal image device. Phys Med Biol. 2004;49:1521–1533
  96. Samant SS, Zheng W, Parra NA, et al. Verification of multileaf collimator leaf positions using an electronic portal imaging device. Med Phys. 2002;29:2900–2912
  97. Parent L, Seco J, Evans PM, Dance DR, Fielding A. Evaluation of two methods of predicting MLC leaf positions using EPID measurements. Med Phys. 2006;33:3174–3182
  98. Vieira SC, Dirkx ML, Pasma KL, Heijmen BJ. Fast and accurate leaf verification for dynamic multileaf collimation using an electronic portal imaging device. Med Phys. 2002;29:2034–2040
  99. Partridge M, Evans PM, van Herk M, Ploeger LS, Budgell GJ, James HV. Leaf position verification during dynamic beam delivery: a comparison of three applications using electronic portal imaging. Med Phys. 2000;27:1601–1609
  100. Ploeger LS, Smitsmans MH, Gilhuijs KG, van Herk M. A method for geometrical verification of dynamic intensity modulated radiotherapy using a scanning electronic portal imaging device. Med Phys. 2002;29:1071–1079
  101. Sonke JJ, Ploeger LS, Brand B, Smitsmans MH, van Herk M. Leaf trajectory verification during dynamic intensity modulated radiotherapy using an amorphous silicon flat panel imager. Med Phys. 2004;31:389–395
  102. James HV, Atherton S, Budgell GJ, Kirby MC, Williams PC. Verification of dynamic multileaf collimation using an electronic portal imaging device. Phys Med Biol. 2000;45:495–509
  103. Li W, Siebers JV, Moore JA. Using fluence separation to account for energy spectra dependence in computing dosimetric a-Si EPID images for IMRT fields. Med Phys. 2006;33:4468–4480
  104. Chytyk K, McCurdy BM. Investigation of tilted dose kernels for portal dose prediction in a-Si electronic portal imagers. Med Phys. 2006;33:3333–3339
  105. Yeboah C, Pistorius S. Monte Carlo studies of the exit photon spectra and dose to a metal/phosphor portal imaging screen. Med Phys. 2000;27:330–339
  106. Chang J, Ling CC. Using the frame averaging of aS500 EPID for IMRT verification. J Appl Clin Med Phys. 2003;4:287–299
  107. Kapatoes JM, Olivera GH, Ruchala KJ, Mackie TR. On the verification of the incident energy fluence in tomotherapy IMRT. Phys Med Biol. 2001;46:2953–2965
  108. Zeidan OA, Li JG, Ranade M, Stell AM, Dempsey JF. Verification of step-and-shoot IMRT delivery using a fast video-based electronic portal imaging device. Med Phys. 2004;31:463–476
  109. Warkentin B, Steciw S, Rathee S, Fallone BG. Dosimetric IMRT verification with a flat-panel EPID. Med Phys. 2003;30:3143–3155
  110. Cozzi L, Fogliata A, Nicolini G. Pre-treatment verification of intensity modulated photon beams with films and electronic portal imaging–two years of clinical experience. Z Med Phys. 2004;14:239–250
  111. Moran JM, Roberts DA, Nurushev TS, Antonuk LE, El-Mohri Y, Fraass BA. An active matrix flat panel dosimeter (AMFPD) for in-phantom dosimetric measurements. Med Phys. 2005;32:466–472
  112. Nicolini G, Fogliata A, Vanetti E, Clivio A, Cozzi L. GLAaS: an absolute dose calibration algorithm for an amorphous silicon portal imager. Applications to IMRT verifications. Med Phys. 2006;33:2839–2851
  113. Hesse BM, Nill S, Tücking T, Oelfke U. 3D in vivo dosimetry by means of entrance dosimetry for dose guided radiotherapy. Radiother Oncol. 2006;81:S46
  114. Poppe B, Thieke C, Beyer D, et al. DAVID–a translucent multi-wire transmission ionization chamber for in vivo verification of IMRT and conformal irradiation techniques. Phys Med Biol. 2006;51:1237–1248
  115. Ansbacher W. Three-dimensional portal image-based dose reconstruction in a virtual phantom for rapid evaluation of IMRT plans. Med Phys. 2006;33:3369–3382
  116. van Elmpt WJ, Nijsten SM, Schiffeleers RF, et al. A Monte Carlo based three-dimensional dose reconstruction method derived from portal dose images. Med Phys. 2006;33:2426–2434
  117. van Elmpt WJ, Nijsten SM, Dekker AL, Mijnheer BJ, Lambin P. Treatment verification in the presence of inhomogeneities using EPID-based three-dimensional dose reconstruction. Med Phys. 2007;34:2816–2826
  118. van Elmpt W, Nijsten S, Mijnheer B, Dekker A, Lambin P. The next step in patient-specific QA: 3D dose verification of conformal and intensity-modulated RT based on EPID dosimetry and Monte Carlo dose calculations. Radiother Oncol. 2008;86:86–92
  119. Renner WD, Norton K, Holmes T. A method for deconvolution of integrated electronic portal images to obtain incident fluence for dose reconstruction. J Appl Clin Med Phys. 2005;6:22–39
  120. Steciw S, Warkentin B, Rathee S, Fallone BG. Three-dimensional IMRT verification with a flat-panel EPID. Med Phys. 2005;32:600–612
  121. van Zijtveld M, Dirkx ML, de Boer HC, Heijmen BJ. 3D dose reconstruction for clinical evaluation of IMRT pretreatment verification with an EPID. Radiother Oncol. 2007;82:201–207
  122. van Zijtveld M, Dirkx M, Heijmen B. Correction of conebeam CT values using a planning CT for derivation of the “dose of the day”. Radiother Oncol. 2007;85:195–200
  123. McNutt TR, Mackie TR, Reckwerdt P, Paliwal BR. Modeling dose distributions from portal dose images using the convolution/superposition method. Med Phys. 1996;23:1381–1392
  124. McNutt TR, Mackie TR, Paliwal BR. Analysis and convergence of the iterative convolution/superposition dose reconstruction technique for multiple treatment beams and tomotherapy. Med Phys. 1997;24:1465–1476
  125. Leunens G, Van Dam J, Dutreix A, van der Schueren E. Quality assurance in radiotherapy by in vivo dosimetry. 1. Entrance dose measurements, a reliable procedure. Radiother Oncol. 1990;17:141–151
  126. Essers M, Lanson JH, Leunens G, Schnabel T, Mijnheer BJ. The accuracy of CT-based inhomogeneity corrections and in vivo dosimetry for the treatment of lung cancer. Radiother Oncol. 1995;37:199–208
  127. Pasma KL, Kroonwijk M, Quint S, Visser AG, Heijmen BJ. Transit dosimetry with an electronic portal imaging device (EPID) for 115 prostate cancer patients. Int J Rad Oncol Biol Phys. 1999;45:1297–1303
  128. Nijsten SM, Mijnheer BJ, Dekker AL, Lambin P, Minken AW. Routine individualised patient dosimetry using electronic portal imaging devices. Radiother Oncol. 2007;83:65–75
  129. D’Andrea M, Laccarino G, Carpino S, Strigari L, Benassi M. Primary photon fluence extraction from portal images acquired with an amorphous silicon flat panel detector: experimental determination of a scatter filter. J Exp Clin Cancer Res. 2007;26:125–132
  130. Piermattei A, Fidanzio A, Stimato G, et al. In vivo dosimetry by an aSi-based EPID. Med Phys. 2006;33:4414–4422
  131. Piermattei A, Fidanzio A, Azario L, et al. Application of a practical method for the isocenter point in vivo dosimetry by a transit signal. Phys Med Biol. 2007;52:5101–5117
  132. Pasma KL, Heijmen BJ, Kroonwijk M, Visser AG. Portal dose image (PDI) prediction for dosimetric treatment verification in radiotherapy. I. An algorithm for open beams. Med Phys. 1998;25:830–840
  133. He X, Van Esch A, Reymen R, Huyskens D. Evaluation of an electronic portal imaging device for transit dosimetry. Acta Oncol. 1999;38:591–596
  134. Dirkx ML, de Boer JC, Heijmen BJ. Improvement of radiotherapy treatment delivery accuracy using an electronic portal imaging device. Radiat Prot Dosimetry. 2006;121:70–79
  135. van Elmpt WJ, Nijsten SM, Mijnheer BJ, Minken AW. Experimental verification of a portal dose prediction model. Med Phys. 2005;32:2805–2818
  136. McCurdy BM, Pistorius S. Photon scatter in portal images: accuracy of a fluence based pencil beam superposition algorithm. Med Phys. 2000;27:913–922
  137. McCurdy BM, Pistorius S. Photon scatter in portal images: physical characteristics of pencil beam kernels generated using the EGS Monte Carlo code. Med Phys. 2000;27:312–320
  138. McCurdy BM, Pistorius S. A two-step algorithm for predicting portal dose images in arbitrary detectors. Med Phys. 2000;27:2109–2116
  139. Dahlgren CV, Ahnesjo A, Montelius A, Rikner G. Portal dose image verification: formalism and application of the collapsed cone superposition method. Phys Med Biol. 2002;47:4371–4387
  140. Dahlgren CV, Eilertsen K, Jorgensen TD, Ahnesjo A. Portal dose image verification: the collapsed cone superposition method applied with different electronic portal imaging devices. Phys Med Biol. 2006;51:335–349
  141. Pasma KL, Vieira SC, Heijmen BJ. Portal dose image prediction for dosimetric treatment verification in radiotherapy. II. An algorithm for wedged beams. Med Phys. 2002;29:925–931
  142. Kroonwijk M, Pasma KL, Quint S, Koper PC, Visser AG, Heijmen BJ. In vivo dosimetry for prostate cancer patients using an electronic portal imaging device (EPID); demonstration of internal organ motion. Radiother Oncol. 1998;49:125–132
  143. Vieira SC, Dirkx ML, Heijmen BJ, de Boer HC. SIFT: a method to verify the IMRT fluence delivered during patient treatment using an electronic portal imaging device. Int J Rad Oncol Biol Phys. 2004;60:981–993
  144. Fielding AL, Evans PM, Clark CH. Verification of patient position and delivery of IMRT by electronic portal imaging. Radiother Oncol. 2004;73:339–347
  145. Spezi E, Lewis DG. Full forward Monte Carlo calculation of portal dose from MLC collimated treatment beams. Phys Med Biol. 2002;47:377–390
  146. Spies L, Evans PM, Partridge M, Hansen VN, Bortfeld T. Direct measurement and analytical modeling of scatter in portal imaging. Med Phys. 2000;27:462–471
  147. Spies L, Bortfeld T. Analytical scatter kernels for portal imaging at 6MV. Med Phys. 2001;28:553–559
  148. Spies L, Partridge M, Groh BA, Bortfeld T. An iterative algorithm for reconstructing incident beam distributions from transmission measurements using electronic portal imaging. Phys Med Biol. 2001;46:N203–211
  149. Swindell W, Evans PM. Scattered radiation in portal images: a Monte Carlo simulation and a simple physical model. Med Phys. 1996;23:63–73
  150. Hansen VN, Swindell W, Evans PM. Extraction of primary signal from EPIDs using only forward convolution. Med Phys. 1997;24:1477–1484
  151. Partridge M, Evans PM. The practical implementation of a scatter model for portal imaging at 10MV. Phys Med Biol. 1998;43:2685–2693
  152. McNutt TR, Mackie TR, Reckwerdt P, Papanikolaou N, Paliwal BR. Calculation of portal dose using the convolution/superposition method. Med Phys. 1996;23:527–535
  153. Mohammadi M, Bezak E, Reich P. The use of extended dose range film for dosimetric calibration of a scanning liquid-filled ionization chamber electronic portal imaging device. J Appl Clin Med Phys. 2007;8:69–84
  154. Mohammadi M, Bezak E, Reich P. Comparison of two-dimensional transmitted dose maps: evaluation of existing algorithms. Australas Phys Eng Sci Med. 2006;29:179–187
  155. Kapatoes JM, Olivera GH, Reckwerdt PJ, Fitchard EE, Schloesser EA, Mackie TR. Delivery verification in sequential and helical tomotherapy. Phys Med Biol. 1999;44:1815–1841
  156. Kirby MC, Williams PC. The use of an electronic portal imaging device for exit dosimetry and quality control measurements. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1995;31:593–603
  157. Kirby MC, Williams PC. Measurement possibilities using an electronic portal imaging device. Radiother Oncol. 1993;29:237–243
  158. Boellaard R, van Herk M, Uiterwaal H, Mijnheer B. Two-dimensional exit dosimetry using a liquid-filled electronic portal imaging device and a convolution model. Radiother Oncol. 1997;44:149–157
  159. Boellaard R, Essers M, van Herk M, Mijnheer BJ. New method to obtain the midplane dose using portal in vivo dosimetry. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1998;41:465–474
  160. Boellaard R, van Herk M, Uiterwaal H, Mijnheer B. First clinical tests using a liquid-filled electronic portal imaging device and a convolution model for the verification of the midplane dose. Radiother Oncol. 1998;47:303–312
  161. McDermott LN, Wendling M, van Asselen B, et al. Clinical experience with EPID dosimetry for prostate IMRT pre-treatment dose verification. Med Phys. 2006;33:3921–3930
  162. McDermott LN, Wendling M, Sonke JJ, van Herk M, Mijnheer BJ. Replacing pretreatment verification with in vivo EPID dosimetry for prostate IMRT. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007;67:1568–1577
  163. Jarry G, Verhaegen F. Patient-specific dosimetry of conventional and intensity modulated radiation therapy using a novel full Monte Carlo phase space reconstruction method from electronic portal images. Phys Med Biol. 2007;52:2277–2299
  164. Partridge M, Ebert M, Hesse BM. IMRT verification by three-dimensional dose reconstruction from portal beam measurements. Med Phys. 2002;29:1847–1858
  165. Chen J, Morin O, Aubin M, Bucci MK, Chuang CF, Pouliot J. Dose-guided radiation therapy with megavoltage cone-beam CT. Br J Radiol. 2006;79 Spec No. 1:S87–98
  166. Louwe RJ, Damen EM, van Herk M, Minken AW, Torzsok O, Mijnheer BJ. Three-dimensional dose reconstruction of breast cancer treatment using portal imaging. Med Phys. 2003;30:2376–2389
  167. McDermott LN, Wendling M, Nijkamp J, et al. 3D in vivo dose verification of entire hypo-fractionated IMRT treatments using an EPID and cone-beam CT. Radiother Oncol. 2008;86:35–42
  168. Kapatoes JM, Olivera GH, Ruchala KJ, Smilowitz JB, Reckwerdt PJ, Mackie TR. A feasible method for clinical delivery verification and dose reconstruction in tomotherapy. Med Phys. 2001;28:528–542
  169. Kapatoes JM, Olivera GH, Balog JP, Keller H, Reckwerdt PJ, Mackie TR. On the accuracy and effectiveness of dose reconstruction for tomotherapy. Phys Med Biol. 2001;46:943–966
  170. Low DA, Harms WB, Mutic S, Purdy JA. A technique for the quantitative evaluation of dose distributions. Med Phys. 1998;25:656–661
  171. Low DA, Dempsey JF. Evaluation of the gamma dose distribution comparison method. Med Phys. 2003;30:2455–2464
  172. Bakai A, Alber M, Nusslin F. A revision of the gamma-evaluation concept for the comparison of dose distributions. Phys Med Biol. 2003;48:3543–3553
  173. Jiang SB, Sharp GC, Neicu T, Berbeco RI, Flampouri S, Bortfeld T. On dose distribution comparison. Phys Med Biol. 2006;51:759–776
  174. Childress NL, Bloch C, White RA, Salehpour M, Rosen II. Detection of IMRT delivery errors using a quantitative 2D dosimetric verification system. Med Phys. 2005;32:153–162
  175. Budgell GJ, Perrin BA, Mott JH, Fairfoul J, Mackay RI. Quantitative analysis of patient-specific dosimetric IMRT verification. Phys Med Biol. 2005;50:103–119
  176. Gillis S, De Wagter C, Bohsung J, Perrin B, Williams P, Mijnheer BJ. An inter-centre quality assurance network for IMRT verification: results of the ESTRO QUASIMODO project. Radiother Oncol. 2005;76:340–353
  177. Stock M, Kroupa B, Georg D. Interpretation and evaluation of the gamma index and the gamma index angle for the verification of IMRT hybrid plans. Phys Med Biol. 2005;50:399–411
  178. Spezi E, Lewis DG. Gamma histograms for radiotherapy plan evaluation. Radiother Oncol. 2006;79:224–230
  179. van Zijtveld M, Dirkx ML, de Boer HC, Heijmen BJ. Dosimetric pre-treatment verification of IMRT using an EPID; clinical experience. Radiother Oncol. 2006;81:168–175
  180. Wendling M, Zijp LJ, McDermott LN, et al. A fast algorithm for gamma evaluation in 3D. Med Phys. 2007;34:1647–1654
  181. Pasma KL, Dirkx ML, Kroonwijk M, Visser AG, Heijmen BJ. Dosimetric verification of intensity modulated beams produced with dynamic multileaf collimation using an electronic portal imaging device. Med Phys. 1999;26:2373–2378
  182. Evans PM, Donovan EM, Partridge M, et al. The delivery of intensity modulated radiotherapy to the breast using multiple static fields. Radiother Oncol. 2000;57:79–89
  183. Donovan E, Bleakley N, Denholm E, et al. Randomised trial of standard 2D radiotherapy (RT) versus intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) in patients prescribed breast radiotherapy. Radiother Oncol. 2007;82:254–264

PII: S0167-8140(08)00372-1

doi: 10.1016/j.radonc.2008.07.008

Radiotherapy & Oncology
Volume 88, Issue 3 , Pages 289-309 , September 2008